INTRODUCTION
In
addition to the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the thirteen
letters attributed to Paul, the New Testament includes nine other writings:
Hebrews, James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and the Revelation of
John. These nine texts are usually referred to as the later New Testament
writings. The term “later” does not allude to their date of composition, as
these books were composed within the same general time period as the four
Gospels and the deutero-Pauline letters, roughly 70-140 CE. Rather, it refers
to their placement within the list of the twenty-seven books in the New
Testament; these are the last nine books in the New Testament canon.[1]
Among these nine other writings are the catholic letters or epistles.
The
“Catholic Epistles” or “letters” refers to the seven New Testament writings:
James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2, and 3 John, and Jude. The word “Catholic” means
universal and shows that these are writings intended for the Christian church
as a whole. While these works are relatively short, they contain important
advice for the church, and they help us to understand better the development of
the New Testament Scriptures. The Catholic Epistles show ties to
Jewish literature that is not part of the Old or the New Testament. These
epistles begin to provide links to the continuing history of Christianity. Today these writings are more
commonly referred to as “general letters,” a reference which captures their
general or universal readership as well as the more general nature of their
advice.
This
work focuses on giving a general introduction to the catholic letter and an
elaboration of one of the letters; letter of Saint James.
THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES
These
are the seven letters of the New Testament that form a distinct and
important class among the books of the New Testament. The term catholic gives affirmation
to their general character. It is admitted that the word catholic denotes
universal or general; but the precise reference of the adjective is disputed.
Thus, it may refer to the authority of the writings, therefore either to their
general acceptance as scripture (canonicity), or to their conformity with
generally received doctrine (orthodoxy). Or the reference may be to the nature
of the Epistles, therefore either to the character of the authorship (general
or joint apostolic authorship), or to the description of the persons addressed
(general or circular Epistles). Eusebius of Caesarea (a church historian and bishop of
Caesarea who died around 340) was apparently the first to use the term
“Catholic Letters” to designate this group of writings.[2]
Some, applying the epithet to the
authority of the Epistles, suppose that it is synonymous with canonical, and is
used to denote those Epistles which were universally recognized in the
Christian Church. Others modify this view, and apply the term catholic, not to
the canonicity, but to the orthodoxy of the writings. They regard the word as
opposed to heretical, and as used to denote those Epistles whose doctrine and
teaching were of universal authority, and in harmony with the teaching of the
catholic or universal Church. This is the opinion adopted by Salmeron,
Cornelius a Lapide, and Schmidt. But it is evident that such a meaning imparts
no characteristic distinction to these Epistles; it is equally applicable to
the other writings of the New Testament. The Epistles of Paul are in the above
sense no less catholic than those Epistles to which this name is restricted.[3]
Conclusively, the title catholic was
first employed to denote those Epistles which were not addressed to any
particular individual or Church, but to the Church in general or at least to a
wide circle of readers. In this sense the term was first applied by Origen to
the First Epistle of Peter and the First Epistle of John. Afterwards, but
before the time of Eusebius, it was used to denote the whole seven Epistles as
being descriptive of their nature, the Second and Third Epistles of John being
considered as an appendix to the First. In process of time it became a
technical term, used to designate that group of Epistles, as distinguished from
the other three groups of writings in the New Testament, namely, the Gospels
and the Acts, the Pauline Epistles, including the Hebrews, and the Apocalypse,
and thus lost in a measure its primary meaning.[4]
Today many biblical scholars would
question whether either of these explanations is appropriate. However, because
these letters have been identified as such throughout the history of the
Tradition, you will see that the designation “catholic epistles” continues to
be used today.[5]
Nowadays, when scholars refer to
these writings, the terms letter and epistle may be used
interchangeably. Previously New Testament scholarship argued for a distinction
between a specific “letter” (for example, Paul’s letters addressed to
particular congregations) and a catholic, or more general, “epistle” that
addressed the church as a whole. Today scholars recognize that these seven
writings, just like those attributed to Paul, are occasional documents written
to address a specific audience or situation.[6]
AUTHORSHIP OF THE CATHOLIC LETTERS
Each of the seven letters is named for
an Apostle or disciple of Jesus. However, today most biblical scholars think
all of these letters are pseudonymous works (i.e., written by an anonymous
author who was using the pseudonym of one of these famous persons). Some people
today are troubled by the suggestion that the persons identified with these
books did not actually write them, perhaps because it raises questions about
the authority or reliability of the books. However, we should remember that
ancient writers of sacred literature and their audiences were not as concerned
about authorship as we are today. For them the authority of these letters
rested in the fact that they were somehow tied to the traditions of these
famous religious figures, not that these people actually wrote the letters.[7] Many scholars are convinced, for example,
that 1 and 2 Peter are from different authors who wrote in the late-first or
early-second centuries. The Apostle Peter is thought to have been martyred in
the mid-sixties, which would mean he could not have written either of them.[8]
The biblical author and later pious
readers should not be turned into hermeneutical competitors, as appears to be
done in the paradigm shift promoted by David Nienhuis and Robert Wall, who want
to tie the meaning of the text to the point of canonization at the expense of
the act of composition by an author.[9]
The seven Catholic Epistles are ascribed to four authors: one to James, two to
Peter, three to John, and one to Jude. Two of these are undoubtedly apostles,
indeed the two chief apostles of our Lord; Peter and John, who in the Acts of
the Apostles are usually conjoined. The genuineness of the Epistles themselves
has been questioned, but it has seldom been questioned that the persons to whom
they have been ascribed, rightly or wrongly, are the apostles Peter and John.
On the other hand, the apostolic character of the other two authors has been
questioned. Some suppose them to be of the number of the Twelve; James the son
of Alpheus, and Judas the brother of James (Acts 1: 13). Others regard James as
the Lord’s brother and a different person from James the son of Alpheus, and
Jude, who calls himself “the brother of James” (Jude 1), as a different person
from Judas the apostle.[10]
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES
OF THE CATHOLIC LETTERS
The epistolary writings of the different
apostles have peculiar doctrines; James is called the apostle of work, Peter
the apostle of hope, and John the apostle of love. And there is a certain
degree of truth in this: the writings of each of these authors are thus characterized,
with the possible exception of the Epistles of Peter, in which it does not
appear that hope is invested with such a peculiar prominence as to be regarded
as a characteristic mark. Other points of difference have been noted. Viewed
with regard to the distinction between Jews and Gentiles, James is the apostle
of Jewish Christianity, Peter is intermediate between Gentile and Jewish
Christianity, and forms the connecting link between the doctrine of Paul and
that of James, and John is the apostle of universal Christianity. Viewed
ecclesiastically, Peter may be regarded as the apostle of the medieval Church,
and John as the apostle of the Church of the future; James, Christian activity,
and John, Christian mysticism. Each of these sacred writers stands in a peculiar
relation to Christianity; as the fulfillment of different phases of Old
Testament revelation. James teaches Christianity as the fulfillment of the law
of the Old Testament, hence “the royal law of love”, “the law of liberty”,
Peter as the fulfillment of the theocracy of the Old Testament, hence the real
kingdom of God, “the royal priesthood”, and John as the fulfillment of the
symbolism of the Old Testament, hence “the true light”, “the true life”, and
“the true love.” [11]
LETTER OF ST JAMES
In evaluating the epistles there are
elements that merit special consideration. These elements include authenticity,
background, authorship, audience, dating, and place. The Epistle of James is a
distinctive book of the New Testament in that it does not resemble the normal
format for an epistle. James is not written to a specific church nor are
greetings extended to any known persons. Nevertheless, the Epistle of James is
a much-loved and often-quoted book, especially with its straightforward exhortation:
“be you doers of the word.” James enjoys a place in the New Testament as a very
practical book. There is little in the way of developed doctrinal teaching, but
much in the way of living the Christian life. The author of the book does not
clearly identify himself, nor can we be absolutely certain concerning the
audience to whom he wrote or the circumstances which warranted the letter.[12] James is a miscellaneous collection
of moral instructions and exhortations, similar in style.
BACKGROUND
The Christian Jews of the Dispersion
scattered abroad. The church began with such Act 2:5-11 and James, who seems
not to have left Jerusalem, felt a particular pastoral responsibility for these
scattered sheep. They still resorted to the synagogues, or called their own
assemblies by that name Jam 2:2, where “assembly” is “synagogue”. It appears
from Jam 2:1-8 that they still held the synagogue courts for the trial of
causes arising amongst themselves. The Epistle, then, is elementary in the
extreme. To suppose that Jam 2:14-26 is a polemic against Paul’s doctrine of
justification is absurd. Neither Galatians nor Romans was yet written. James’ theme, then, is “religion” (threskeia,
“outward religious service”) as the expression and proof of faith. He does not
exalt works as against faith, but faith as producing works.
As an elder of Jerusalem writing to the
12 tribes of the dispersion (which came as a result of the persecution noted in
Acts 11:19), James set forth the gospel in its relation to the law, which the
Jews revered. As Paul’s epistles are a commentary on the doctrines flowing from
the death and resurrection of Christ, so James’s epistle has a close connection
with Christ’s teaching during his life on earth, especially his Sermon on the
Mount. In both the Sermon on the Mount and the Epistle of James, the law is
represented as fulfilled in love, and the very language is remarkably similar
(cf. James 1:2 with Matthew 5:12; James 1:4 with Matthew 5:48; James 1:5 and
5:14-15 with Matthew 7:7-11; James 2:13 with Matthew 5:7 and 6:14-15; James
2:10 with Matthew 5:19; James 4:4 with Matthew 6:24; James 4:11 with Matthew
7:1-2; James 5:2 with Matthew 6:19). The whole spirit of this epistle breathes
the same gospel-righteousness that the Sermon on the Mount inculcates as the
highest realization of the law. James’s own character as “the Just” suited this
coincidence (cf. James 1:20; 2:10; 3:18 with Matthew 5:20). It also fitted him
for presiding over a church still zealous for the law (Acts 21:18-24; Galatians
2:12). If any could win the Jews to the gospel, he was the most likely one because
he presented a pattern of Old Testament righteousness, combined with
evangelical faith (cf. also James 2:8 with Matthew 5:44, 48).
DATING
Tradition fixes the martyrdom of James
in the year 62, but his Epistle shows no trace of the larger revelations
concerning the church and the distinctive doctrines of grace made through the
Apostle Paul, nor even of the discussion concerning the relation of Gentile
converts to the law of Moses, which culminated in the first council (Acts 15),
over which James presided. This presumes the very early date of James, which may
confidently be set down as “the first Epistle to Christians.”
Many scholars confirm an early date for
James’s epistle, even as early as AD 45–49, because the whole orientation of
the epistle fits the early history of the church, an era in which many Jewish
Christians had not made a complete severance from Judaism. Thus, James uses the
terms “the twelve tribes” (James 1:1) and “the synagogue” (2:2, Greek); he
speaks as an OT prophet (5:1ff.) and as one fond of OT proverbs (cf. James 1:5
with Proverbs 2:6; James 1:19 with Proverbs 29:20; James 3:18 with Proverbs
11:30; James 4:13-16 with Proverbs 27:1; and James 5:20 with Proverbs 10:12).
James’s message, as was noted earlier, closely follows Jesus’ sermons. His
message does not deal with the Jewish/Gentile problems that arose in the 50s
and 60s. Moreover, he, unlike Peter, Jude, and John (in their epistles), did
not deal with false teachings. All these facts point to an early date. This
date is probably before AD 50, when the first Jerusalem Council assembled to
discuss the Jewish/Gentile problem (Acts 15:1.). Also, the date is probably
after AD 44, the time of the persecution instigated by Herod Agrippa (12:1).
This persecution would have caused many Jewish Christians to leave Jerusalem
and thereby be “the dispersed” (James 1:1). Thus, James should be dated AD
45–49. As such, the Epistle of James was the first NT book to be written. If
these dates are not accurate, then we are, at least, sure that it was written
before AD 61 or 62, the time of James’s martyrdom, according to Josephus.[13]
AUTHORSHIP
According to the salutation, this letter
was written by “James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ” (James 1:1,).
But who was this James? Of the several mentioned in the NT, only two have ever
been proposed as the author of this letter; James the son of Zebedee, and James
the Lord’s brother. The epistle
opens with a declaration of the author’s name, James. Yet the author does not
identify himself as an Apostle nor give any other explicit clues to his
identity. There are several people in the NT with the name James who could
serve as potential candidates. For example, we know of James the son of Zebedee
from the Gospels and James the son of Alphaeus (Mt 10:3), the latter being
favored by many Catholics and even Calvin. James the son of Zebedee was
beheaded by Herod Agrippa I in AD 44 (see Acts 12:2), which would disqualify
him unless the book was written before that date.[14]
More recently, some critical scholars have suggested that a pseudepigraphal
figure wrote the book who merely assumed the name James to make his writing
appear more authoritative. The problem, however, with this latter view is that
such a person would have been more likely to have clearly identified himself as
an apostle or as “the Lord's brother” if he were really wanting to disguise his
work as authoritative.[15]
The James who wrote this epistle was
probably not James the son of Zebedee, for he was martyred too early (AD 44) to
have written it (see Acts 12:1-2). Most scholars have identified this James as
Jesus’ brother (Mark 6:3; Galatians 1:19), the prominent elder of the church in
Jerusalem (Acts 15:13, 19; 21:17-25; Galatians 2:12). The whole character of
the epistle coincides with what we know of this James’s legalism and
Jewishness. James the Lord's brother
has been almost universally regarded as the author of this Epistle. He stands
out prominently in the Acts of the Apostles; he appears to have been the
acknowledged head of the Church of Jerusalem, and hence has received the title
of “Bishop of Jerusalem.” If not an apostle, he was one of the most eminent leaders
of the primitive Church; he presided at the Council of Jerusalem; and was
regarded by Paul as one of the pillars of the Church (Gal. ii. 9).[16]
PLACE AND AUDIENCE
Although a number of suggestions have
been made from time to time about the origin of the book, there can be little
doubt that the letter was written in Palestine. The author makes allusions that
are Near Eastern generally and Palestinian particularly (cf. “the early and
late rain,” 5:7; the spring of brackish water, 3:11; the fig, olive, and vine,
3:12; and the “scorching heat,” 1:11). The Epistle is inscribed “to the twelve
tribes which are in the Dispersion; “but this inscription, plain and simple as
it appears, has given rise to different and contradictory interpretations. Some
suppose that it is written to Jewish Christians; others assert that the phrase
includes all believers, whether Jews or Gentiles; and others, all Jews, whether
believers or unbelievers.”[17]
The contents of the letter indicate
clearly that James was writing to Jewish Christians. They are called “the
twelve tribes,” a title of Israel (1:1); their Christianity is assumed in 2:1;
their place of meeting is called a synagogue (2:2); and they are told about the
compassion of “the Lord Almighty” (5:4), a name for God used in the Old Testament.
In the shorter, disconnected passages of the letter, it is impossible to
discover anything about the readers’ circumstances. Most of these exhortations
are general and relate to social and spiritual conditions one might find among
any group of Christians in any age. The more extended passages that deal with
social conditions (2:1-12; 5:1-11) do provide information about the readers’
situation. James is addressing poor Christians who are employed as farm
laborers by wealthy landowners. A few rich may be included among his Jewish
Christian readers (cf. 4:13-17), but James is primarily concerned with the
poor. His statements denouncing the rich are reminiscent of the Old Testament
prophets, especially Amos.
CONCLUSION
The letter of James was written (1) to
strengthen Jewish Christians undergoing trial (James 1:2-4, 13-15; 5:7-11); (2)
to correct a misunderstanding of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith
(2:14-26); and (3) to pass down to first-generation Christians a wealth of
practical wisdom. James’s theology is not dogmatic; it omits the great
theological themes that dominate Paul’s writings and play such an important
role in the rest of the books of the New Testament. James makes no mention of
the Incarnation, and the name of Christ appears only twice (1:1; 2:1). No
mention is made of Christ’s sufferings, death, or resurrection. James’s
theology is practical and has a decided Jewish flavor. The distinctive
Christian features, of course, are there. James has simply mingled the two to
produce a Jewish-Christian document.[18]
[1]
C.f Bruce M. Metzger, The
Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance, Clarendon,
Oxford 1987.
[2] Daniel J. Scholz, The Catholic
Epistles, Hebrews, and Revelation, Anselm Academic, Winona 2016, 9.
[3] Paton J. Gloag, Introduction to the Catholic Epistles, T&T
Clark, Edinburgh 1882, 30.
[4] Ibid, 33
[5] www.smp.org/dynamicmedia/files/4c12f35b4b76fd32b9d48a21af88afc7/TX001062_1-Content-Introduction_to_the_Letters.pdf
[6] Daniel J. Scholz, The Catholic Epistles, Hebrews, and
Revelation, 10.
[7] www.smp.org/dynamicmedia/files/4c12f35b4b76fd32b9d48a21af88afc7/TX001062_1-Content-Introduction_to_the_Letters.pdf
[8] Daniel J. Scholz, The Catholic Epistles, Hebrews, and
Revelation, 11
[9] David R. Nienhuis and Robert W.
Wall, Reading the Epistles of James, Peter, John, and Jude as Scripture, Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans 2013, 9-12.
[10]
Paton J. Gloag, Introduction to
the Catholic Epistles, 33.
[11] Paton J. Gloag, Introduction to the Catholic Epistles,
36
[12]Dr.
J. Paul Tanner, An Introduction to The
Epistle of James, in www.paultanner.org/English%20Docs/James/IntroToJames.pdf,
1
[13] Ilumina Gold Bible Encyclopedia,
Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.
[14] Dr. J. Paul Tanner, An Introduction to The Epistle of James, in www.paultanner.org/English%20Docs/James/IntroToJames.pdf, 1
[15] Ibid
[16] Paton J. Gloag, Introduction to the Catholic Epistles, 58
[17] Ibid, 69
[18] Ilumina Gold Bible Encyclopedia,
Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.
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