administration and management

INTRODUCTION

Administration and management are twin concepts. Management is the act of handling or controlling something successfully. It is a process; it involves planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling. It is the job of getting things done through the efforts of other people. It is a sequence of coordinated events.

 Administration in the other hand is the execution of public affairs as distinguished from policy-making. It is solely concerned with the implementation of policies and mobilizing the efforts of people towards the achievement of a common goal. It is an art and science of carefully and systematically arranging the resources available to an organization for the attainment of their basic goals. It equally means process of working with and through others to efficiently accomplish organizational goals. The fundamental purpose of administration in any organization is that of coordinating the efforts of people towards the achievement of its goals.

As an introduction, I have concisely defined administration and management. Now I want to examine, as a part of the course: principles of administration and management, the various techniques of decision making, their characteristic features, their strength and their weaknesses. Before I proceed to the proposed work of this paper, it is of importance that clarify concepts that are going to be used in this work, thereby before the major work, I propose to make a conceptual clarification of the terms am going to use.

CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

TECHNIQUES: this refers to the procedure, skill, or art used in a specific task. It is a skill with which someone is able to something practically in a pragmatic way. The manner of treating a technical detail; it is a method of accomplishing a desired aim. GROUP: this refers to a number of people that are connected in a way, sharing something in common such as interest, belief, or political aim. It also refers to a number of people that are together as a unity; a number of individuals assembled together or having some unifying relationship. Robbins (1998) defined a group as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.  DECISION: this is a choice or judgment made after a thought about what is the best thing to be done. It is a choice after considering it in comparison with other choices. DECISION MAKING: this is a process of deciding about important issues in a group of people or in an association. It is a process of making choices and reaching conclusion. Group decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple individuals acting collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the alternatives a solution or solutions. Decision making is an essential part of planning; they are used in management functions.

As I have clarified conceptually the meaning of different terms in what my concern is in this work, I propose to proceed to the major concern of this paper which is to examine the various techniques of decision making in a group, their characteristic features, their strengths and their weaknesses, but before this, let me expose the problems of decision making.

PROBLEMS OF DECISION MAKING

Making decisions within a group can often be challenging. When things go well, they can go very well.  However, when things go wrong, you can end up mired in conflict. Some people may fight for recognition and position; others may be over-critical or disruptive, while others may sit quietly and not contribute anything to the overall effort. Because of this, groups often spin out of control and make worse decisions than individuals working on their own.

Research on group decision making has identified several problems that often lead to ineffective decisions. In some in- stances, for example, group communication may be limited because members who are shy, lack communication skills, or are dominated by other group members may not communicate their ideas (Johnson & Johnson, 1987, p. 91). These limitations can lead to the inefficient or incomplete use of information that could be relevant to the group's decision.

Because of the problems inherent in decision making, there are techniques of decision making evolved in order to and in an attempt to make an effective decision. I am now going to discuss the most important techniques of decision making.

TECHNIQUES OF DECISION MAKING

Decision making in groups are made by committees, teams or groups and not by an individual. It is solely one of the major things that keep a group alive, moving and progressing so it requires much care, it is delicate and must be taken care of so that a group can continue in a mutual understanding and keep on progressing without confusions, quarrels or disputes.

All groups find that much of their responsibilities center around exploring various options related to issues for the organization and making decisions that provide direction for the group;  Generating ideas, understanding each option and the impact it would have on the decision, making choices and setting priorities.

In order to retain the unity and mutual understanding of a group in decision making, the task of making decisions for a group is always entrusted to a committee or team in order to make sure that the views of every member of the group is considered in making decisions for the welfare of the group; decision making in group organizations is not left to an individual.

In order to make a right and proper decision in group organizations, thereby avoiding regrets in the long run, there are techniques employed in decision making, to ensure that choices are rightly made and also to guarantee that things are kept in their place in order. The techniques of decision making in group organizations includes: Brainstorming, Nominal grouping, Delphi technique, Consensus mapping and Dialectical inquiry.

Decision making techniques are tools used in analyzing and prioritizing issues for assessment in order to make right choices for a group. These techniques describes tools that can be helpful in ensuring that issues are given due consideration in a participatory decision-making process. There are many methods or procedures that can be used by groups. Each is designed to improve the decision-making process in some way. Just as I proposed when I was introducing this paper, I now proceed to examining them in details one after the other, exposing their characteristic features, their strengths and their weaknesses.

BRAINSTORMING

This is a group problem-solving technique that involves the spontaneous contribution of ideas from all members of the group. It is the mulling over of ideas by two or more individuals in an attempt to devise or find a solution to a problem. It refers to the sure way of making a group of people to have thoughts, in order to solve a problem or create an idea. This is the act of making different individuals crack their brains and bring out ideas for a specific purpose, towards the achievement of a goal that is common to them as a group, organization, or an association. This is an act of generating spontaneous ideas, usually for problem-solving in an intensive group discussion.

This technique involves group members verbally suggesting ideas or alternative courses of action. Brainstorming is a useful means by which alternatives are generated, but it does not have much to offer in the evaluation of alternatives or the selection of a proposed course of action.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BRAINSTORMING

·                     It involves all the group members.

·                     It involves verbal suggestion of ideas.

ADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING

·                     It brings out the creativity in group members.

·                     It also fosters the unity of a group.

·                     It can also help to bring out the assertiveness in group members.

DISADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE OF DECISION MAKING

·                     One of the difficulties with brainstorming is that despite the prohibitions with regards to judging ideas before all group members have given their own opinions, some individuals are timid in proposing ideas because they fear the harsh judgment or ridicule of other group members.

NOMINAL GROUPING

The nominal group technique is a structured decision making process in which group members are required to compose a comprehensive list of their ideas or proposed alternatives in writing. In this technique, ideas of group members are usually recorded separately, and verbal exchanges are limited and allowed only on requests for clarification; no evaluation or criticism of listed ideas is permitted.

The nominal group technique is used to engage in consensus planning in order to prioritize issues and make decisions. In this technique, after proposal the group engages in a discussion of alternatives, ranking or rating in order of preference. It generates a greater number of decision alternatives that are of relatively high quality. It is a good tool to use when dealing with controversial or emotional issues, especially when a group is stuck.

This technique is very effective in generating a large quantity of creative new ideas.  It is designed to allow every member of the group to express their ideas and minimizes the influence of other participants. Nominal Group Technique is a weighted ranking method that enables a group to generate and prioritize a large number of issues within a structure that gives everyone an equal voice.  The tool is called nominal because there is limited interaction between members of the group during the process.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NOMINAL GROUPING

·                     Group members present their ideas in a list.

·                     Ideas of each group member are recorded separately.

·                     Verbal exchanges are limited.

·                     Criticisms and prejudices are not allowed.

·                     It makes us of prioritization according to preference.

·                     It is mostly used for controversial issues.

ADVANTAGES OF NOMINAL GROUPING

·                     The nominal group technique is more structured than the ordinary group discussion approach.

·                     Through a nominal group technique, everyone in the group is given an opportunity to contribute to the discussion and decision, thereby avoiding a situation where one person dominates the group process.

·                     The nominal group technique can be used with small (3–9 people) groups as well as with larger groups (for example, 10–30 people).

·                     By using the nominal group technique, you can get a sense of priority concerns that are represented among the group’s members.

DISADVANTAGES OF NOMINAL GROUPING

·                     The synergism that is experienced in more open-ended group discussions may not develop as easily in the nominal group approach.

·                     The nominal group technique may feel somewhat mechanical to some participants. This situation can be circumvented to some extent by ensuring that the facilitator shows flexibility in process and implementation.

·                     Although the nominal group technique can be used with a range of group sizes, it is hard to implement the technique effectively with large audiences unless you plan very carefully beforehand.

DELPHI TECHNIQUE

This is a process of forecast in reaching a consensus by the anonymous solicitation and comparison of the views of experts. This is a technique in group decision making and problem-solving in which experts of particular fields are allowed to make suggestions and their suggestions are put into consideration in an attempt to make a decision or to solve a problem. The Delphi technique is well suited as a method for reaching an agreement by the use of questionnaires administered with multiple feedbacks in order to collect data from a panel of selected subjects, usually experts.

The Delphi technique has been described as ‘a method for structuring a group communication process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem’.

The Delphi technique is usually used where individual members are in different physical locations. The technique was developed at the Rand Corporation. The individuals in the Delphi "group" are usually selected because of the specific knowledge or expertise of the problem they possess.[1] This technique usually requires each group member to bring a private and independent opinion about the problem they are aiming at solving. This technique has stages after which group members reach a consensus decision of the best action or the best choice to make.

The Delphi technique is accepted method and is widely used to gather data from respondents within the domain of expertise. It is conventional means of pooling opinions obtained from a group interaction. This technique is designed for group communication process, aiming at achieving a convergence of opinion on a specific group issue. It helps in developing a full range of alternatives, exploring underlying assumptions, as well as related judgments on a topic spanning a wide range of disciplines. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE

·                  Delphi, in contrast to other data gathering and analysis techniques, employs multiple iterations designed to develop a consensus of opinion concerning a specific topic.

·                  It makes use of administered questionnaires for data collection.

·                  Delphi technique has the ability to provide anonymity to respondents, a controlled feedback process, and the suitability of a variety of statistical analysis techniques to interpret the data; Statistical derivation of a group response.

·                  There is a method of controlled feedback which is designed to control noise.

·                  It has the ability to use statistical analysis techniques in a practice which further reduces the potential of group pressure for conformity.

·                  It makes use of experts and is often used for major decisions that need input from a large number of people.

ADVANTAGES OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE

·                  Prejudices are curbed and controlled.

·                  It retains anonymity for the participants in order to avoid criticisms.

·                  It is technical in its approach of collecting ideas.

DISADVANTAGES OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE

·                  Due to the feedback process that is inherent in the Delphi technique, potential exists for low response rates and striving to maintain robust feedback can be a challenge.

·                  The Delphi technique can also be time-consuming and laborious.  Unlike other data collection techniques such as the telephone survey and the face-to-face administration, which can be simultaneously conducted by a group of people and can be completed in a short period of time if the sample size is small, the Delphi technique is iterative and sequential.[2]

·                  It has the tendency of ignoring facts, thereby misconceptions is likely to continue.

CONSENSUS MAPPING

This is a technique of decision making where there is a general and wide spread agreement among all the members of a group with regards to a particular issue. This technique of decision making is democratic in nature. In this technique of decision making, Participants make decisions by agreement rather than by majority vote.

Acting according to consensus guidelines enables a group to take advantage of all group members' ideas; by combining their thoughts, people can often create a higher- quality decision than a vote decision or a decision by a single individual.[3] When this technique is used with a co-operative state of mind, it allows groups to come together and take inspired and creative decisions. It supports individuals to pool their power and work together as equals to produce results far better than they could produce alone.[4]

The consensus technique of decision making is an effort in which affected parties seek to reach agreement on a course of action in order to address an issue that is bordering them.  In a consensus process, the members work together to provide and sort a mutually acceptable solution. Each process of the consensus mapping is unique because the group members design their agreement to fit their circumstances and situations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSENSUS MAPPING

·                     It encourages inclusive participation and empowers the group.

·                     Decisions are made by agreement and not by majority vote.

·                     It requires a commitment to work together and increases cooperation.

·                     It creates shared understanding through discussion that bridges differences.

·                     It equalizes the distribution of power in a group.

·                     It creates better decisions that are more representative of the larger community.

·                     It brings ownership and commitment.[5]

ADVANTAGES OF CONSENSUS MAPPING

·                     It allows all group members to express their person views.

·                     Quality ideas are always obtained.

·                     It fosters unity and equality in the group.

·                     It is carried out with a cooperative state of mind.

DISADVANTAGES OF CONSENSUS MAPPING

·                     There is likely to be confusion because of the individual differences of group members.

·                     Group hierarchy may be ignored because of the democratic nature of this technique.

DIALETICAL INQUIRY

Dialetical inquiry is a group decision-making technique that focuses on ensuring full consideration of alternatives. Essentially, it involves dividing the group into opposing sides, which debate the advantages and disadvantages of proposed solutions or decisions. This technique is designed to make sure that the group considers all possible ramifications of its decision.

PAIR-WISE COMPARISON

The pair-wise comparison technique is used when there are multiple options to prioritize. It helps to narrow options according to a set of agreed-upon criteria. It is equally used to prioritize or rank needs or possible solutions to address needs.

This technique is a simple and effective tool for facilitating group decisions that are based on the information collected through a needs assessment. This technique is a worthwhile tool for prioritizing needs, determining the relationships among multiple causal factors, or recommending potential improvement activities. Whenever there are multiple options or alternatives to consider, pair-wise comparison can be used to advance group discussions toward a decision.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.      Witkin, Belle Ruth, and James W. Altschuld. 1995. Planning and Conducting Needs Assessments: A Practical Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

2.      Arietta, D. L., & Wallace, L. (2000).Consensus building fieldbook. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Extension and Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs.

3.      Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Vol 12, No 10,  Hsu & Sandford, Delphi Technique

4.      Tim Hartnett's Consensus-Orientated Decision-Making.

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[1]Tim Barnett’s “Group Decision Making”. www.referenceforbusiness.com/management. 1/19/2011

[2] Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Vol 12, No 10,  Hsu & Sandford, Delphi Technique

[3] www.agree.org

[4]www.consensusbook.com. Tim Hartnett's Consensus-Orientated Decision-Making.

[5] Arietta, D. L., & Wallace, L. (2000).Consensus building fieldbook. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Extension and Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs.