INTRODUCTION
Administration
and management are twin concepts. Management is the act of handling or
controlling something successfully. It is a process; it involves planning,
organizing, coordinating and controlling. It is the job of getting things done
through the efforts of other people. It is a sequence of coordinated events.
Administration in the other hand is the execution of public affairs as distinguished from policy-making.
It is solely concerned with the implementation of policies and
mobilizing the efforts of people towards the achievement of a common goal. It is an art and science of carefully and systematically arranging
the resources available to an organization for the attainment of their basic
goals. It equally means process of working with and through others to
efficiently accomplish organizational goals. The fundamental purpose of
administration in any organization is that of coordinating the efforts of
people towards the achievement of its goals.
As an introduction,
I have concisely defined administration and management. Now I want to examine,
as a part of the course: principles of administration and management, the
various techniques of decision making, their characteristic features, their
strength and their weaknesses. Before I proceed to the proposed work of this
paper, it is of importance that clarify concepts that are going to be used in
this work, thereby before the major work, I propose to make a conceptual
clarification of the terms am going to use.
CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION
TECHNIQUES:
this refers to the procedure, skill, or art used in a specific task. It is a
skill with which someone is able to something practically in a pragmatic way. The manner of treating a technical detail; it is a method of accomplishing a desired aim. GROUP: this refers to a number of
people that are connected in a way, sharing something in common such as
interest, belief, or political aim. It also refers to a number of people that
are together as a unity; a number of individuals assembled
together or having some unifying relationship. Robbins (1998) defined a
group as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives. DECISION:
this is a choice or judgment made after a thought about what is the best
thing to be done. It is a choice after considering it in comparison with other
choices. DECISION MAKING: this is a
process of deciding about important issues in a group of people or in an
association. It is a process of making choices and reaching conclusion. Group
decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple
individuals acting collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and
evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the alternatives
a solution or solutions. Decision making is an essential part of planning; they
are used in management functions.
As I have
clarified conceptually the meaning of different terms in what my concern is in
this work, I propose to proceed to the major concern of this paper which is to
examine the various techniques of decision making in a group, their
characteristic features, their strengths and their weaknesses, but before this,
let me expose the problems of decision making.
PROBLEMS OF DECISION MAKING
Making decisions
within a group can often be challenging. When things go well, they can go very
well. However, when things go wrong, you
can end up mired in conflict. Some people may fight for recognition and
position; others may be over-critical or disruptive, while others may sit
quietly and not contribute anything to the overall effort. Because of this,
groups often spin out of control and make worse decisions than individuals
working on their own.
Research on
group decision making has identified several problems that often lead to
ineffective decisions. In some in- stances, for example, group communication
may be limited because members who are shy, lack communication skills, or are
dominated by other group members may not communicate their ideas (Johnson &
Johnson, 1987, p. 91). These limitations can lead to the inefficient or
incomplete use of information that could be relevant to the group's decision.
Because of the
problems inherent in decision making, there are techniques of decision making
evolved in order to and in an attempt to make an effective decision. I am now
going to discuss the most important techniques of decision making.
TECHNIQUES OF DECISION MAKING
Decision
making in groups are made by committees, teams or groups and not by an
individual. It is solely one of the major things that keep a group alive,
moving and progressing so it requires much care, it is delicate and must be
taken care of so that a group can continue in a mutual understanding and keep
on progressing without confusions, quarrels or disputes.
All
groups find that much of their responsibilities center around exploring various
options related to issues for the organization and making decisions that
provide direction for the group;
Generating ideas, understanding each option and the impact it would have
on the decision, making choices and setting priorities.
In
order to retain the unity and mutual understanding of a group in decision
making, the task of making decisions for a group is always entrusted to a
committee or team in order to make sure that the views of every member of the
group is considered in making decisions for the welfare of the group; decision
making in group organizations is not left to an individual.
In
order to make a right and proper decision in group organizations, thereby
avoiding regrets in the long run, there are techniques employed in decision
making, to ensure that choices are rightly made and also to guarantee that
things are kept in their place in order. The techniques of decision making in
group organizations includes: Brainstorming,
Nominal grouping, Delphi technique, Consensus mapping and Dialectical inquiry.
Decision
making techniques are tools used in analyzing and prioritizing issues for
assessment in order to make right choices for a group. These techniques
describes tools that can be helpful in ensuring that issues are given due
consideration in a participatory decision-making process. There are many
methods or procedures that can be used by groups. Each is designed to improve
the decision-making process in some way. Just as I proposed when I was
introducing this paper, I now proceed to examining them in details one after
the other, exposing their characteristic features, their strengths and their
weaknesses.
BRAINSTORMING
This
is a group problem-solving technique that involves the spontaneous contribution
of ideas from all members of the group. It is the mulling over of ideas by two
or more individuals in an attempt to devise or find a solution to a problem. It
refers to the sure way of making a group of people to have thoughts, in order
to solve a problem or create an idea. This is the act of making different
individuals crack their brains and bring out ideas for a specific purpose,
towards the achievement of a goal that is common to them as a group,
organization, or an association. This is an act of generating spontaneous ideas,
usually for problem-solving in an intensive group discussion.
This
technique involves group members verbally suggesting ideas or alternative
courses of action. Brainstorming is a useful means by which alternatives are
generated, but it does not have much to offer in the evaluation of alternatives
or the selection of a proposed course of action.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BRAINSTORMING
·
It involves all the group members.
·
It involves verbal suggestion of ideas.
ADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING
·
It brings out the creativity in group
members.
·
It also fosters the unity of a group.
·
It can also help to bring out the
assertiveness in group members.
DISADVANTAGES OF BRAINSTORMING
TECHNIQUE OF DECISION MAKING
·
One of the difficulties with brainstorming
is that despite the prohibitions with regards to judging ideas before all group
members have given their own opinions, some individuals are timid in proposing
ideas because they fear the harsh judgment or ridicule of other group members.
NOMINAL GROUPING
The
nominal group technique is a structured decision making process in which group
members are required to compose a comprehensive list of their ideas or proposed
alternatives in writing. In this technique, ideas of group members are usually
recorded separately, and verbal exchanges are limited and allowed only on
requests for clarification; no evaluation or criticism of listed ideas is
permitted.
The
nominal group technique is used to engage in consensus planning in order to
prioritize issues and make decisions. In this technique, after proposal the
group engages in a discussion of alternatives, ranking or rating in order of
preference. It generates a greater number of decision alternatives that are of
relatively high quality. It is a good tool to use when dealing with controversial
or emotional issues, especially when a group is stuck.
This
technique is very effective in generating a large quantity of creative new
ideas. It is designed to allow every
member of the group to express their ideas and minimizes the influence of other
participants. Nominal Group Technique is a weighted ranking method that enables
a group to generate and prioritize a large number of issues within a structure
that gives everyone an equal voice. The
tool is called nominal because there is limited interaction between members of
the group during the process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NOMINAL GROUPING
·
Group members present their ideas in a
list.
·
Ideas of each group member are recorded
separately.
·
Verbal exchanges are limited.
·
Criticisms and prejudices are not
allowed.
·
It makes us of prioritization according
to preference.
·
It is mostly used for controversial
issues.
ADVANTAGES OF NOMINAL GROUPING
·
The nominal group technique is more
structured than the ordinary group discussion approach.
·
Through a nominal group technique,
everyone in the group is given an opportunity to contribute to the discussion
and decision, thereby avoiding a situation where one person dominates the group
process.
·
The nominal group technique can be used
with small (3–9 people) groups as well as with larger groups (for example,
10–30 people).
·
By using the nominal group technique,
you can get a sense of priority concerns that are represented among the group’s
members.
DISADVANTAGES OF NOMINAL GROUPING
·
The synergism that is experienced in
more open-ended group discussions may not develop as easily in the nominal
group approach.
·
The nominal group technique may feel
somewhat mechanical to some participants. This situation can be circumvented to
some extent by ensuring that the facilitator shows flexibility in process and
implementation.
·
Although the nominal group technique can
be used with a range of group sizes, it is hard to implement the technique
effectively with large audiences unless you plan very carefully beforehand.
DELPHI TECHNIQUE
This
is a process of forecast in reaching a consensus by the anonymous solicitation
and comparison of the views of experts. This is a technique in group decision
making and problem-solving in which experts of particular fields are allowed to
make suggestions and their suggestions are put into consideration in an attempt
to make a decision or to solve a problem. The Delphi technique is well suited
as a method for reaching an agreement by the use of questionnaires administered
with multiple feedbacks in order to collect data from a panel of selected
subjects, usually experts.
The Delphi technique has been described as ‘a method for structuring a group communication process so that the process is effective in allowing a group of individuals, as a whole, to deal with a complex problem’.
The
Delphi technique is usually used where individual members are in different physical
locations. The technique was developed at the Rand Corporation. The individuals
in the Delphi "group" are usually selected because of the specific
knowledge or expertise of the problem they possess.[1]
This technique usually requires each group member to bring a private and
independent opinion about the problem they are aiming at solving. This
technique has stages after which group members reach a consensus decision of
the best action or the best choice to make.
The
Delphi technique is accepted method and is widely used to gather data from
respondents within the domain of expertise. It is conventional means of pooling
opinions obtained from a group interaction. This technique is designed for
group communication process, aiming at achieving a convergence of opinion on a
specific group issue. It helps in developing a full range of alternatives,
exploring underlying assumptions, as well as related judgments on a topic
spanning a wide range of disciplines.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE
·
Delphi, in contrast to other data
gathering and analysis techniques, employs multiple iterations designed to
develop a consensus of opinion concerning a specific topic.
·
It makes use of administered questionnaires
for data collection.
·
Delphi technique has the ability to
provide anonymity to respondents, a controlled feedback process, and the
suitability of a variety of statistical analysis techniques to interpret the
data; Statistical derivation of a group response.
·
There is a method of controlled feedback
which is designed to control noise.
·
It has the ability to use statistical
analysis techniques in a practice which further reduces the potential of group
pressure for conformity.
·
It makes use of experts and is often
used for major decisions that need input from a large number of people.
ADVANTAGES OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE
·
Prejudices are curbed and controlled.
·
It retains anonymity for the
participants in order to avoid criticisms.
·
It is technical in its approach of
collecting ideas.
DISADVANTAGES OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE
·
Due to the feedback process that is
inherent in the Delphi technique, potential exists for low response rates and
striving to maintain robust feedback can be a challenge.
·
The Delphi technique can also be
time-consuming and laborious. Unlike
other data collection techniques such as the telephone survey and the
face-to-face administration, which can be simultaneously conducted by a group
of people and can be completed in a short period of time if the sample size is
small, the Delphi technique is iterative and sequential.[2]
·
It has the tendency of ignoring facts,
thereby misconceptions is likely to continue.
CONSENSUS MAPPING
This
is a technique of decision making where there is a general and wide spread
agreement among all the members of a group with regards to a particular issue.
This technique of decision making is democratic in nature. In this technique of
decision making, Participants make decisions by agreement rather than by
majority vote.
Acting
according to consensus guidelines enables a group to take advantage of all
group members' ideas; by combining their thoughts, people can often create a
higher- quality decision than a vote decision or a decision by a single
individual.[3]
When this technique is used with a co-operative state of mind, it allows groups
to come together and take inspired and creative decisions. It supports
individuals to pool their power and work together as equals to produce results
far better than they could produce alone.[4]
The
consensus technique of decision making is an effort in which affected parties
seek to reach agreement on a course of action in order to address an issue that
is bordering them. In a consensus
process, the members work together to provide and sort a mutually acceptable
solution. Each process of the consensus mapping is unique because the group
members design their agreement to fit their circumstances and situations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSENSUS
MAPPING
·
It encourages inclusive participation
and empowers the group.
·
Decisions are made by agreement and not
by majority vote.
·
It requires a commitment to work
together and increases cooperation.
·
It creates shared understanding through
discussion that bridges differences.
·
It equalizes the distribution of power
in a group.
·
It creates better decisions that are
more representative of the larger community.
·
It brings ownership and commitment.[5]
ADVANTAGES
OF CONSENSUS MAPPING
·
It allows all group members to express
their person views.
·
Quality ideas are always obtained.
·
It fosters unity and equality in the
group.
·
It is carried out with a cooperative
state of mind.
DISADVANTAGES
OF CONSENSUS MAPPING
·
There is likely to be confusion because
of the individual differences of group members.
·
Group hierarchy may be ignored because
of the democratic nature of this technique.
DIALETICAL INQUIRY
Dialetical
inquiry is a group decision-making technique that focuses on ensuring full
consideration of alternatives. Essentially, it involves dividing the group into
opposing sides, which debate the advantages and disadvantages of proposed
solutions or decisions. This technique is designed to make sure that the group
considers all possible ramifications of its decision.
PAIR-WISE COMPARISON
The
pair-wise comparison technique is used when there are multiple options to
prioritize. It helps to narrow options according to a set of agreed-upon
criteria. It is equally used to prioritize or rank needs or possible solutions
to address needs.
This
technique is a simple and effective tool for facilitating group decisions that
are based on the information collected through a needs assessment. This
technique is a worthwhile tool for prioritizing needs, determining the
relationships among multiple causal factors, or recommending potential
improvement activities. Whenever there are multiple options or alternatives to
consider, pair-wise comparison can be used to advance group discussions toward
a decision.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Witkin, Belle Ruth, and James W.
Altschuld. 1995. Planning and Conducting Needs Assessments: A Practical Guide.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
2.
Arietta, D. L., & Wallace, L.
(2000).Consensus building fieldbook. Minneapolis, MN: University of
Minnesota Extension and Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs.
3. Practical
Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Vol 12, No 10, Hsu & Sandford, Delphi Technique
4. Tim Hartnett's
Consensus-Orientated Decision-Making.
[1]Tim
Barnett’s “Group Decision Making”. www.referenceforbusiness.com/management.
1/19/2011
[2]
Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, Vol 12, No 10, Hsu & Sandford, Delphi Technique
[3]
www.agree.org
[4]www.consensusbook.com.
Tim Hartnett's Consensus-Orientated Decision-Making.
[5]
Arietta, D. L., & Wallace, L. (2000).Consensus building fieldbook.
Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Extension and Hubert H. Humphrey
Institute of Public Affairs.
